Do you know which ideologies influence your morals and values?
How Ideologies Shape the World
Chet Singh
Where Do Your Beliefs, Values, and Ideas Come From?
Power tells us stories that it is not power – that it is the rule of law, justice, ethics, protection from anarchy or the natural world, inevitable. And to obscure the fact that these are just stories – and that like all stories, these ones may not actually be true, or may even be the opposite of truth – it embeds these stories in ideology.
– Jonathan Cook
As we go about our daily activities, we are engaged in a web of relationships that connect us to the larger world. As we navigate various social interactions, and make sense of the world and our place in it, we rely on ideas and values to form opinions, make assumptions, and arrive at conclusions. However, many of us aren’t aware of where these notions come from or how they influence our thinking. Most of us assume that our points of view are accurate and truthful. We think that they are just common sense. This may lead us to dismiss, discredit, or misinterpret perspectives that differ from our own (Paul & Elder, 2006). For example, it is not uncommon for us to mistake opinions with factual analysis. We may ignore facts that contradict our perspective or emphasize information favourable to our point of view. Confirmation bias is the tendency to seek out perspectives that match our beliefs. This means that we rarely evaluate our perspectives in relation to alternative points of view.
In this module, we will think about how our ideas, assumptions, and values are formed and how they relate to power. We will also consider why it is important to analyze and assess our perspectives in relation to alternative points of view.
What Is Ideology?
Ideology touches every aspect of life and shows up in our words, actions, and practices…. Because ideology structures our thoughts and interpretations of reality, it typically operates often beneath our conscious awareness … it shapes what seems “natural,” and it makes what we think and do “right.”
– Eisenberg, quoted in Allen, 2011
An ideology is a defined set of beliefs and ideas shared by a group of people. Often, these beliefs and ideas are about how society should work and be organized (Festenstein & Kenny, 2010). Ideologies can be political, social, legal, religious, cultural, or ethical. They give people a common understanding of their community, society, or larger world (Brock, 2003). Our ideologies help determine our values and our ideas about how we should treat each other and live together in a society (Mullaly, 2010).
For example, some people think that our primary loyalty should be to the country in which we live (nationalism). Others think that we need to think and act in ways that acknowledge our connection to all of humanity (global citizenship). Both of these are ideologies.
You may believe that the most important thing the government can do is protect private property. It should let people do what they want, including building as much wealth as they can. Alternately, you may believe that it is more important for a government to ensure that all of its residents have access to education, health care, a living wage, and food. These too are ideologies.
As you can see from these examples, ideologies often conflict with each other. Supporters of different ideologies tend to assume that their ideologies represent the best way to organize society. Therefore, they often compete to promote their particular values and beliefs.
The Social Construction of Knowledge and Ideas: An Example
Imagine that you are with a friend in the cafeteria at the college, and your friend identifies a classmate in the Tim Hortons’s line-up as the “Canadian guy.” You may have learned that the First Nations were the original inhabitants of Canada, or that Black Loyalists have been in Canada since the 1800s. But in spite of this knowledge, you would probably look for someone of European ancestry. Where do assumptions about who is a “regular” Canadian come from? Are there certain ideas that shape these assumptions?
When I moved to the Peterborough area in the 1990s, I purchased The History of Harvey Township (Brunger, 1992) by a local university professor to learn about its history. This book told the story of European people and the institutions they established. It made few references to the Anishinaabeg First Nations, who call this area Nogojiwanong and have been here for thousands of years. There was no mention of their diverse cultures, languages, traditions, governance structures, philosophy, laws, and other aspects of their societies.
This book was written by a respected academic. It seemed accurate and trustworthy. But it wasn’t. By omitting the stories, achievements, and experiences of the First Nations and how their land was taken by Europeans, it gives readers a distorted narrative of Canada. In this story of Canada, Canada was an empty landscape peacefully settled by Europeans. Leaving out the First Nations who already lived here positions them as marginal, irrelevant and insignificant to the story of Canada.
This framing of Canada as a white European nation has been repeated by other institutions such as the Canadian government, schools, mass media, and other forms of popular culture (Monture-Angus, 1999; Palmater, 2017). It has been reinforced to the point that even when we know better, we unconsciously think of a Canadian as having European ancestry.
Have you ever unconsciously had a distorted idea about something?
This idea that Canada is a European nation has had harmful consequences. Historically, it has been used to justify stealing Indigenous lands as well as passing laws and policies that harm Indigenous Peoples. It has also led to genocidal practices. Today, the majority of Canadians still think of “real” Canadians as European, and Canada as a land of opportunity. Such beliefs allow Canadian governments to continue to discriminate against Indigenous Peoples—for example, by not funding basic services, not allowing them to govern themselves, and refusing to address their claims to traditional lands. Recently, a Canadian senator said First Nations should just forget about the past and join mainstream Canada (see the video in the Go Deeper section).
When the majority of us accept these ideas, we’re buying into a vision of society that is racist and discriminatory. Often, we are doing this without even realizing it. The ideology associated with this vision is called “white supremacy.” This refers to the belief that white Europeans are responsible for the spread of progress and civilization. As the quote at the beginning of this section illustrates, powerful ideologies do not simply influence our perceptions. They can also be used to normalize harmful policies and practices.
Go Deeper
This video features a discussion about the case of former Senator Lynn Beyak. Beyak was accused of promoting racism by denying historical facts about residential schools. Also discussed on the panel is the free speech defense used by the senator and why the political system allows her to continue in this influential role. (Source: APTN InFocus, 2017)
How Ideologies Shape Us
Ideologies are ways of organizing large swaths of life and experience under a set of shared but unexamined assumptions. This quality makes an ideology particularly hard to see, at least while it’s exerting its hold on your culture. A reigning ideology is a little like the weather: all pervasive and virtually inescapable.
– Michael Pollan
Most of us don’t think about the role of ideologies in our lives because their influence on our thinking is subtle. Understanding how ideologies work, however, is important for critical thinking. It helps us to recognize how certain beliefs and assumptions are at work in everyday situations and practices (Brookfield, 2009). What we may think is a personal point of view has been influenced by a lifetime of interactions: with friends, family, and social institutions, such as education, media, and government (Naiman, 2012).
Ideologies influence our morals and values. They affect the kinds of interpersonal relationships we have and what we think is appropriate or normal. They determine how we view ourselves in relation to others. They also influence our interactions with institutions such as the family or the workplace, as well as how we interpret those experiences. So, ideology lives both within and outside us. It shapes our individual identities and how we experience the world.
It can be difficult to change our ideologies. At the core of every ideology is the assumption that our beliefs and values are morally superior to other beliefs and values (Marchak, 2011).
The last sub-topic explored the idea of “who is a Canadian?” How we view the idea of Canada depends on our ideological lens. Sometimes our beliefs and assumptions are based on distorted knowledge and myths presented to us through schooling, movies, television, and books. So, what we may think of as accurate could be factually inaccurate. In the case of who we think of as Canadian, our thoughts and beliefs may be influenced by the ideology of white supremacy still circulating in Canadian institutions.
Hegemony
The dominant ideology justifies the social, political, and economic status quo as natural, inevitable, perpetual and beneficial for everyone, rather than as artificial social constructs that benefit only the ruling class.
– Antonio Gramsci
You may have noticed that many of us support ideologies that do not best serve our interests. Why is that?
The simple answer is that powerful groups have ways to encourage us to believe ideologies that protect their interests. This process of getting people to accept the interests and values of ruling groups without force is called hegemony. Hegemony can also be defined as rule by consent.
Ruling groups get us to support their preferred ideologies through several social processes. One, they create norms. They do this by defining mainstream culture and what are considered acceptable behaviours, roles, and ideas. These norms might include how we should act at work; what work is considered appropriate for different genders; what history we learn in public school; who we consider leaders; and what we value and ignore in our society (Goodman, 2011). These norms appear to us to be common sense. Two, they restrict how we understand and talk about issues by creating dominant discourses (e.g. “real” Canadians are European descendants—you will learn more about dominant discourses in the next sub-topic and the module on social analysis). According to Mullaly (2010), hegemony is achieved through the control of social institutions such as the education system, religion, and mass media.
Hegemony ensures dominant groups do not often need to use violence to get the majority to agree with their preferred ideologies and ways of organizing society. Because we have been socialized to believe the same ideologies, we more readily accept things the way they are. Our consent is important because the current system benefits these ruling groups far more than it benefits everyone else. This inequality is challenged by alternative discourses and ideologies that suggest other ways of organizing society. We will learn more about these and how ruling groups deal with them in the sub-topic on counter ideologies.
Dominant Ideologies and Dominant Discourses
The smart way to keep people passive and obedient is to strictly limit the spectrum of acceptable opinion, but allow very lively debate within that spectrum.
– Noam Chomsky
Ideologies shape our individual thinking, but over time, some of them become more influential than others. We call these dominant ideologies. Dominant ideologies, however, are not more influential because they contain better ideas. Instead, they represent the extent to which powerful groups in any society are able to shape our ideas, values, and beliefs. Dominant ideologies are often linked together. For instance, as we learned in the “Who is a Canadian?” example, the dominant political ideology of imperialism (where a nation uses force to take over and rule another nation) is linked to the social ideology of white supremacy (Goodman, 2001; Mullaly, 2010; Singh, 2004).
We are all influenced by dominant ideologies even if we think we are not. Consider Hollywood films, for example. White men and women have most major roles. Black and other racialized actors usually play minor or stereotypical roles. It is not uncommon to view a Hollywood movie with an entirely white cast.
Furthermore, most Hollywood stories feature middle- or upper-class characters who are cis, Christian, straight, and able-bodied. This is an example of mass media creating norms to shape our ideas of who is valued and who is not. These portrayals have consequences. People who do not fit these norms face prejudice and discrimination. They may also internalize these messages, which means they may come to believe they do have less worth and value.
How do dominant ideologies come to be accepted as natural and inevitable?
Dominant Discourses
The common-sense ideas, assumptions and values of dominant ideologies are communicated through dominant discourses. Dominant discourses can be found in propaganda, cultural messages, and mass media. For example, in Canada, the dominant discourse that capitalism is the best economic system can be found in media, schools, and popular culture. It is promoted in business schools and publications. No other options are usually even mentioned. This narrows how we talk and think about economics. We disregard alternatives and accept the ideology that capitalism is the most democratic, fair, and effective way to organize the economy.
Dominant discourses tend to hide negative realities. For example, capitalism poses dangers to our health and environment. It requires the exploitation of certain groups (including children in countries where our goods are made). However, because capitalism is a dominant ideology, people are less likely to believe negative stories about it. When people point to negative aspects, they are often dismissed or called names such as radical or extremist. Creating and promoting dominant discourses is a technique powerful groups use to prevent people from disagreeing with dominant ideologies.
What ideas, values and interests are being promoted by the dominant discourse of who is regarded as a Canadian?
The chart below explains the relationship between hegemony, dominant discourses, and dominant ideologies.
Go Deeper
In this video, philosopher Slavoj Zizek demonstrates how dominant ideologies operate in Hollywood movies to normalize or promote certain values, attitudes, and beliefs. (Source: Fiennes, 2013)
In this video, bell hooks examines how dominant discourses are represented in Hollywood movies and commercial rap music. (Source: Hirshorn et al., 1997)
How Four Contemporary Ideologies Differ
This chart illustrates how four contemporary ideologies differ from each other in terms of their principles and vision of society. It also provides an overview of the history of each ideology and what it looks like today. Finally, it presents how each views social problems and what the societal impacts of each are in practice. You will notice that it does not cover the variations within each ideology, nor does it cover every ideology. Many other social, political, religious, and economic ideologies exist.
The transformative ideologies are the most difficult to pinpoint. This category includes various counter ideologies that address specific issues. Their approaches may be politically liberal, socialist, or even conservative in some instances.
Identifying ideologies and their influence in society is a key component of critical thinking and self-reflection, which are building blocks for the social analysis model you will be using for course assignments. After reviewing this chart, consider which ideology aligns with your views. Perhaps the ideology that best fits your worldview is not listed. For a brief description of other ideologies, see Definitions of Common Ideologies.
Historical Origins of Dominant Political Ideologies
Throughout history, all civilizations have developed philosophical and ideological traditions. However, the dominant economic and political ideologies of today were outcomes of foundational global changes occurring with the European Enlightenment in the 16th and 17th centuries.
Liberalism arose as a critique of the feudal aristocracy and the Church. These institutions dominated these societies. They created an exploitative and rigid social order. This movement led by philosophers and emerging middle classes argued for a new form of society with increased freedoms and rights for the individual (Heywood, 2017).
Liberalism evolved, and is closely associated, with capitalism. Capitalism claims that a free market is the key to social development. Liberalism was opposed by the aristocracy through the ideology of conservatism. Conservatism sought to restore previous hierarchies and control of wealth (Naiman, 2012).
The Enlightenment period also coincided with European imperialism and colonization. This financed the European capitalist industrial revolution and spawned an assortment of discriminatory social ideologies. The colonizing process involved appropriating Indigenous technologies, enslavement of local populations, dispossession of resources and wealth, and genocide.
To justify dispossession, theft, and enslavement, European elites concocted the discriminatory social ideology of white supremacy. This constructed whites as superior and civilized and the colonized in the Global South as “uncivilized,” “noble savages,” or “barbarians” (Johnson, 2006). The introduction of the idea of racial supremacy made it possible to reconcile dispossession, slavery, and genocide with liberalism’s ideas of individual freedom and human rights. In addition to enforcing religious ideologies of Christianity, European colonizers also enforced associated discriminatory social ideologies such as patriarchy and heterosexism when these contradicted their prescribed norms (Rodney, 2018).
Ideology Test
Take the following test to more specifically determine your ideological leanings. (Source: Pace News Ltd., 2020)
Counter Ideologies and Discourses
If you’re not careful, the newspapers will have you hating the people who are being oppressed, and loving the people who are doing the oppressing.
– Malcolm X
Through hegemony, ruling groups try to ensure that we will accept their views and ideologies without question. However, some people resist submitting to the desires of the ruling group. These people hold counter ideologies, alternative ideas about how society should be run and organized. Generally, counter ideologies, and the counter discourses associated with them, articulate an alternative set of values and assumptions that are more inclusive, equitable, just, and less harmful.
Counter ideologies question the “common-sense” ideas of dominant ideologies and dominant discourses. They draw attention to how dominant ideologies justify injustice and lead to inequality and discrimination. For instance, many textbooks celebrate the explorer Christopher Columbus as a great hero and credit him with discovering the Americas. There is even a US holiday with his name, Columbus Day. However, counter ideologies put forward by Indigenous and anti-racist groups point out that Columbus did not discover the Americas; there were people already living here. Not only that but Columbus murdered and enslaved the Tainos (Indigenous people) he encountered (Bigelow & Peterson, 2003).
Counter ideologies do not have the same ability to reach the public as dominant ideologies. Institutions like the media and education are controlled by ruling groups who do not want counter ideologies to spread. However, they can achieve substantial reforms (changes) or accommodations (shifts) in the way we approach social problems (Marchak, 1988).
Movements inspired by counter ideologies include The Combahee River Collective, anti-racism, civil rights, labour unions, Occupy Wall Street, Black Lives Matter, Idle No More, Cochabamba, and the Arab Spring. These movements are responsible for major reforms such as the right to form unions, minimum wage, social medicine, pensions, human rights laws, and sexual and gender harassment policies. Counter ideologies put forward by First Nations activist groups are forcing settler governments around the world to address the injustices of the past and present. Some notable developments include United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) and the Recommendations for the Truth and Reconciliation Commission.
When ruling groups feel threatened by movements inspired by counter ideologies, they may agree to some changes, such as new laws or policies. This makes them look good and legitimizes their power. However, they generally only agree to policies that keep them in charge.
Go Deeper
Read the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada’s “Calls to Action.” (Source: Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, 2015)
Your Ideological Framework
Your beliefs, ideas, and values make up your ideological framework. This framework is developed over a lifetime of socialization. Many of these interactions are with and within social institutions. Social institutions include the family, education systems, mass media, and religious institutions. These institutions transmit dominant ideologies to us. They do this through policies, practices, and norms. In this way, the ruling ideas of dominant groups operate hegemonically through the creation of common-sense assumptions shared by everyone.
Most of us may not realize that our private thoughts and beliefs are heavily influenced by the social world we grew up in. Here is an example.
A child asks his mother, “Why does my friend not have her own room?” The mother replies, “Well, they are poor.” The child continues, “Why are they poor?” The mom explains, “The parents don’t make much money. The mom is a personal support worker, and the father used to be a cab driver but is now unemployed. Your dad is a sales manager, and I am a college professor. We both went to university. That’s why we have good jobs.”
This may seem like a harmless conversation. However, in the mom’s responses, we can find assumptions and omissions that reflect the influence of dominant ideologies about the economy, work, gender roles, and poverty on her ideological framework. Why do some jobs pay more than others? Why are some jobs valued more than others? Which sex generally works in caring professions? Which sex primarily works as cab drivers? Why are there working people living in poverty? Why does the economic system allow 5–12% of the population to be unemployed at any given time, through no fault of their own? Why do some social groups have more stable work, higher-paying jobs, or higher unemployment?
Asking these sorts of questions can help us recognize the effects of dominant ideologies. It may cause us to seek more information and an explanation for the way society is organized. It may lead us to adopt counter ideologies and engage in social action. A person’s ideological framework is highly variable. It can change over time based on a range of factors such as social status, social interactions, and critical thinking.
Can we unknowingly perpetuate harmful ideas and practices?
How Agents of Socialization Shape Your Ideological Framework
After learning more about various ideologies, can you evaluate your perspectives on social issues by considering perspectives that differ from your own?
Go Deeper
Interested in learning more about specific ideologies? This list describes some ideologies that have influenced the social, economic, and political structures of society. They have impacted the life experiences of various social groups. They may have impacted your life too. Please note this is only a sample of influential ideologies. It is not a complete list.
Common Ideologies List
Definitions belong to the definer—not to the defined.
– Toni Morrison
Political and Economic Ideologies
As with all ideologies, there are many strands of anarchists. However, all reject the state as a coercive authority that is nothing less than legalized oppression working in the interest of the powerful classes. All state structures from the right or left are viewed as inherently evil and oppressive.
Capitalism has been the dominant economic ideology beginning around the period of European colonization and imperialism. It is a system where profit is largely generated from the control of natural resources, low wages, and financial speculation. Conservatives and neoliberals embrace this as the best economic system; social democrats want to reform it to reduce inequality; and socialists want to entirely replace it. Capitalism is linked historically to white supremacy, gender inequality, and exploitative labour practices for people with disabilities.
Communism is similar to socialism in its critique of capitalism but differs from socialism because it argues that capitalism must be destroyed by force and a small group, a vanguard, must lead the revolution. Hence, it is hostile to democratic systems. It has been linked to totalitarian governments such as the former USSR and pre-state capitalist China. China now practices a form of state capitalism.
Conservatism values a natural hierarchy of classes, which is necessary because the elites are natural leaders who need to direct the masses. Government has the right to intervene and establish social and moral norms but should have a restrained role in the economy. Society is viewed as an organic whole within which various social statues have assigned roles, unlike liberalism which sees society as a collection of individuals striving for personal goals.
Consumerism is critical to the maintenance of capitalism as an ideology. It encourages the purchase and consumption of goods as indicative of our worth and level of happiness.
Learn more:
Bioneers. (2015, December 23). Annie Leonard – The story of stuff [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WInDaa-0Yd4
Crony capitalism or corporatism is social, economic, and political. It shares conservatism’s belief in the natural social hierarchies of the human species. It believes that corporations should make decisions about the economy and other facets of society. Democratic institutions sought by liberals are seen as unacceptable because it impedes their view of social progress. This ideology is characterized by favouritism in the distribution of legal permits, government grants, and special tax breaks, lax environmental policy, and other state intervention in favour of corporate interests.
The formation of the nation state of Canada is based on the ideology of imperialism, the idea that the imperial power is culturally, religiously, and economically superior, which gives them the right to expropriate land and resources and control the destiny of Indigenous populations. More recently imperialism is linked to neoliberal and conservative political theories.
Learn more:
Longley, R. (2020, May 26). What Is imperialism? Definition and historical perspective. ThoughtCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/imperialism-definition-4587402
A belief that the free market is the key to social development. Liberals believe in individual equality and equality of opportunity. Many see present-day society as having largely achieved equality within social structures. Liberals place great emphasis on education as an equalizer. Liberals are not as concerned with social and moral issues as conservatives except where they infringe on individual rights.
Comprises a range of theories on the right and left spectrum. All maximize individual freedom over the state, which proponents see as a threat to liberty. Social order flows from individual liberty not authority. Some libertarians recognize the need for a limited state that provides the basics such as police, courts, and a military. Right libertarianism believes the state should protect private property and economic freedom. Left libertarianism is associated with anarchism and stresses individual freedom, particularly civil liberties (free love and free thought), and social equality, and is opposed to capitalism and private ownership of natural resources.
Nationalism can be political, cultural, or racial. It centres on a set of shared values and myths of the nation or group. Those not belonging to the nation or group are marginalized and ostracized, and genocide is a strong possibility under certain circumstances. The nation is regarded as superior to others; war with others regarded as enemies and imperialism/empire building are practices associated with this ideology. Nationalists are inward looking, hence opposed to internationalism or globalization unless it is favourable to their interests.
Not a defined ideology per se but piggybacks on right or left ideologies. The common theme is the identification of a particular class of elites as corrupt and out of touch. Demagogues offer to voice the concerns of “common” people and shift power from the establishment back to the people. Right-wing populism identifies enemies who are minoritized such as immigrants/racialized peoples who they claim are favoured by elites with special treatment. Left-wing populism is driven by the tensions inherent within hegemony when the legitimacy of the social or political order is exposed, as with the financial crisis of 2008 when the bankers who caused the problem were bailed out and people lost their homes. The global movement Occupy Wall Street exposed the collusion between government and corporations to enrich the elites at the expense of working people.
Learn more:
Baker, P. (2019, January 10). ‘We the people’: The battle to define populism. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/news/2019/jan/10/we-the-people-the-battle-to-define-populism
Menon, R. (2017, November 28). The many ways Trump will betray his base: The ugly façade of American populism. Common Dreams. https://www.commondreams.org/views/2017/11/28/many-ways-trump-will-betray-his-base?
Right-wing and left-wing represent contrasting approaches to political and social
change. Left-wing views are regarded as progressive and welcoming of change that will create more equitable conditions in society. They support a great role for the state and are collectivist in orientation. Social democrats and feminists would be considered having left-wing ideology. Right-wing thinking, associated with neoconservatism, favours capitalism and individualism, and views equality as undesirable and unattainable. Right-wingers resist change and support the existing social order.
Social democratic shares values of both liberalism and socialism. Rather than centralized state ownership of industries, social democrats favour a mixed economy with strong state planning. They place more of an emphasis on equity than liberals, recognizing that governments act in the interests of ruling classes. They would work towards a gradual and democratic transition to a more egalitarian society with strong worker participation in management and collective ownership of resources and industries. However, most social democratic parties such as the NDP have abandoned the latter goal and have shifted to the right of the spectrum.
Learn more:
Geoff, J., et al. (2020, March 10). Five Americans living in social democratic Norway explain why Bernie Sanders is so appealing. Common Dreams. https://www.commondreams.org/views/2020/03/10/five-americans-living-social-democratic-norway-explain-why-bernie-sanders-so
Wittner, N. (2019, March 24). What democratic socialism is… and what it is not: There is no good reason for socialism to be a bad word. Common Dreams. https://www.commondreams.org/views/2019/03/24/what-democatic-socialism-and-what-it-not
Socialism challenges capitalism as an economic system, and neoliberalism and neoconservatism as political ideology. Socialists argue that the production, distribution, and exchange of goods and services should be under common ownership of the state to mitigate the inequalities inherent in capitalism.
Social Ideologies
Casteism is practiced in India and is similar to supremacist ideologies, but instead of race or gender, it is based on heredity. Though associated with Hinduism, it is still practiced among all religions in India. Those deemed of a lower caste face systematic discrimination and violence. Remedies to end this form of discrimination are viewed as reverse discrimination in much the same way as some in the West view anti-racism and anti-oppression programs.
Classism suggests that those experiencing poverty have traits that are responsible for their marginal economic and social status. While those experiencing poverty are blamed for their situation, institutions and policies structured to create inequality and advantage the wealthy are not acknowledged as contributing factors.
Colonization occurs when a new group of people migrates into a territory and then takes over and begins to control the Indigenous group. The settlers impose their own cultural values, religions, and laws, seizing land and controlling access to resources and trade. As a result, the Indigenous people become dependent on the settlers.
Democratic racism is an ideology that permits two contradictory sets of values to coexist. One set of values embraces liberal ideas of fairness, justice, and equality, and the other set of conflicting values permits attitudes and behaviours that are racist. This belief is compatible with neoliberalism and historically linked with colonialism and capitalism.
Ecologism gives priority to nature, unlike environmentalism which does not fundamentally question the capitalist economy system and nature as secondary to human needs. This green ideology views nature as interconnected, where humans and other life forms are intrinsically connected and interdependent. It adopts various political ideological positions such as anti-racism, though it can ignore class analysis.
Feminism, as with all ideologies, consists of numerous variations. First-wave feminism in the West originated in the mid-19th century. It was focused on acquiring the same political and legal rights as men and initially associated with the abolitionist movement in the US. However, it became dominated with the concerns of middle-class, cis-gendered white women. Nellie McClung, Canada’s most renowned suffragist, was also supportive of eugenics (forced sterilization), which targeted the poor, racialized and First Nations. Second-wave feminism emerged in the 1960s and extended the goals of political and legal equality to include personal, psychological, and sexual aspects of women’s liberation such as reproductive rights. Its significance was challenging the social construction of women. While the movement addressed issues of race and class, the voices and contributions of Black women were marginalized. Third-wave feminism originating in the 1990s is largely the theoretical construct of Black feminist intellectuals and is international in focus. It views women’s lives as intersecting through dimensions of race, ethnicity, class, religion, gender, sexuality, and nationality. Fourth-wave feminism originating around 2008 is characterized as queer, sex-positive, trans-inclusive, body-positive, and digitally driven.
Learn more:
Grady, C. (2018, July 20). The waves of feminism, and why people keep fighting over them, explained. Vox. https://www.vox.com/2018/3/20/16955588/feminism-waves-explained-first-second-third-fourth
Heterosexism advances the idea that heterosexuality is normal and natural. Hence, it minoritizes individuals who do not identify as heterosexual. This ideology grants favouritism to male biological sex, gender identity and gender roles. This discriminatory ideology historically was promoted by numerous institutions. Only recently have some legal and educational institutions acknowledged their roles in stigmatizing LGTBQ2S identities. However, many religious institutions and families continue to stigmatize these identities resulting in ongoing discrimination and violence.
Patriarchy asserts that male dominance in the family and other institutions is natural; consequently, it promotes gender-based norms and roles. This ideology is responsible for violence and discrimination against women, and persists in virtually all societies. Also, devaluing women leads to exploitation through segregated and precarious work, with low pay. Aspects of this ideology are associated with all of the dominant political ideologies.
Postcolonialism exposes how cultural and psychological subjugations persist after the political structures of colonialism have been largely replaced. It gives a voice to political and philosophical ideas and traditions suppressed by Western political, social, and intellectual imperialism. It does incorporate some aspects of Western critical theories. However, some are concerned with the concept as it has not extended its analysis to emerging capitalist states that have elements of internal colonialism such as India and China.
Learn more:
Roy, A. (2019, January 3). How to think about empire. Boston Review.
http://bostonreview.net/literature-culture-global-justice/arundhati-roy-avni-sejpal-challenging-%E2%80%9Cpost-%E2%80%9D-postcolonialism
Religious fundamentalism is a global phenomenon and common to the major religions. Extremists groups involved with these religions are involved in terrorist activities against perceived enemies. Christian fundamentalists associated with white supremist groups have been involved in most of the terrorist activities in the United States and have been very influential in the political arena and mainstream media. Islamic fundamentalist movements view their interpretation of religion as principles that dictate personal and institutional conduct. Religion is not a private matter but is expressed in rules that govern the organization of social, political, and economic affairs of society. Islamists concentrate most of their activities in the Middle East as they attempt to expel the US and other Western countries with imperial military and economic interests and establish a caliphate, an Islamic state. Hindu fundamentalist has been described as more nationalistic than religious and equated with fascism. It has led to the demonizing of Muslim minorities who have been victims of state violence.
Learn more:
Cai, W, & Landon, S. (2019, April 3). Attacks by white extremists are growing. So are their connections. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/04/03/world/white-extremist-terrorism-christchurch.html
Chaudhury, A. (2018, December 13). Why white supremacists and Hindu nationalists are so alike. Al Jazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/white-supremacists-hindu-nationalists-alike-181212144618283.html
Fisher, M. (2014, Aug 7). 9 questions about the caliphate you were too embarrassed to ask. Vox. https://www.vox.com/2014/7/10/5884593/9-questions-about-the-caliphate-you-were-too-embarrassed-to-ask
Johnson, D. (2018, January 10). Holy hate: The far right’s radicalization of religion. Southern Poverty Law Center. https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/intelligence-report/2018/holy-hate-far-right%E2%80%99s-radicalization-religion
Weston, F. (2019, April 26). Religious fundamentalism – why is it growing and what is the alternative? The International Marxist Tendency.
https://www.marxist.com/religious-fundamentalism-why-is-it-growing-and-what-is-the-alternative.htm
The idea of whiteness, that socially constructs Europeans as a privileged social status above everyone else, was developed to justify colonization and imperialism. White supremacy was critical to the development of capitalism and is largely responsible for the wealth of European nations. These ideas were the basis of the formation of white settler states such as Canada and though refuted are still popular in European-dominated societies. This hierarchy of social statues based on the artificial concept of race made it possible to justify two competing values: dispossession, treachery, genocide, and enslavement, and evolving ideologies prompting values of democracy, freedom, and human dignity. Reducing racialized people to the status of non-humans enabled colonizers to dispossess them of their lands, acquire these lands and resources, carry out genocide, and benefit from cheap, indentured and enslaved labour.
Summary
Dominant ideologies are powerful forces in society. They are how dominant groups preserve their power. They do this by promoting ideas to advance their interests and maintain social order. Such ideologies shape dominant discourses that legitimize the current organization of society. These ideas are embedded in the practices of social institutions. The majority of people accept these conditions even though it is not in their interest to do so. This is referred to as hegemony, or rule by consent.
When we share the ideologies of dominant groups, social problems such as discrimination, inequality, and injustice continue. To address social problems, we must be able to recognize dominant and counter ideologies. We must be aware of how they impact the economic, social, political, and environmental ideas and values in our society.
Key Concepts
Key Concepts
capitalism
A global economic system in which private people and companies own goods and property. The capitalists’ main aim is to produce goods to sell at a profit by keeping the cost of labour and resources low.
colonization
Occurs when a new group of people migrates into a territory and then takes over and begins to control the Indigenous group. The settlers impose their own cultural values, religions, and laws, seizing land and controlling access to resources and trade.
confirmation bias
The tendency to seek out perspectives that match our beliefs. We tend to favour facts that support our preconceived opinions and are less likely to believe facts that don’t support our perspectives. Also referred to as belief bias.
counter ideologies
Alternative ideas to dominant ideologies about how society should be run and organized. Generally, counter ideologies, and the counter discourses associated with them, articulate an alternative set of values and assumptions that are more inclusive, equitable, just, and less harmful.
democracy
On a basic level, it is the ability of citizens to participate in fair and open elections to choose their representatives in government. Another perspective argues that democracy must function beyond elections by involving citizens in ongoing government decisions that affect them.
dominant discourses
How the common-sense ideas, assumptions and values of dominant ideologies are communicated to us. Dominant discourses can be found in propaganda, cultural messages, and mass media.
dominant ideologies
Ideologies that are particularly influential in shaping our ideas, values, and beliefs because they are supported by powerful groups.
First Nations
Peoples indigenous to Canada who do not identify as Inuit or Métis. There are approximately 630 First Nations in Canada.
hegemony
The process of building consent through social practices where the ruling classes present their interests as the general interests of the society as a whole.
ideology
A defined set of beliefs and ideas shared by a group of people. Ideologies provide members of a group with an understanding and an explanation of their world.
minoritized
Experiencing discrimination and other disadvantages compared to members of the dominant group.
norms
Social expectations about attitudes, values, and beliefs.
racialized
The process of creating, preserving, and communicating a system of dominance based on race.
social institution
Established areas, organizations, or groups of organizations within a society that coordinate our actions and interactions with each other. Examples include: the economy, the political system, family, education, religion, mass media, and the law.
socialization
The process by which we come to understand different social statuses and their roles, or behavioural expectations, through interactions with others.
Sources
Licenses
Social Analysis for Social Change in Global Citizenship: From Social Analysis to Social Action (2021) by Centennial College, Chet Singh is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial Share-Alike License (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) unless otherwise stated.
Introduction photo by Yasin Yusuf on Unsplash
References
This module is an adaptation of the chapter “Social Analysis for Social Change” by Chet Singh, in Global Citizenship: From Social Analysis to Social Action © 2015 by Centennial College.
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How Ideologies Differ Chart
| Key Tenets, Origins, Objectives | Fascist | Conservative / Neoconservative | Liberal / Neoliberal | Social Democratic / Democratic Socialist | Transformative / Counter Ideologies |
| Vision of Society | Authoritarian: the charismatic leader’s xenophobic views of social group, race, community and nation is supreme, including anti-democratic nationalist vision Strict government control. Rampant sexism, glamorization of military, disdain for intellectuals, journalists and arts Tacit support of corporate elites who finance the leader and receive preferential economic access Outsiders are enemies | Hierarchy: elites are morally, intellectually superior to the masses. Tradition: God makes the rules and the state backs ‘Him’ up Small government, free market capitalism, low taxes Conformity: gender roles, law and order Patriotic: militarism, nationalism, hostility to minoritized groups Inequality is natural; fittest of the fit survive | Individual liberty: freedom to compete in one’s (economic) self-interest and to participate in political process; legal rights extended to all Small government, free market capitalism, labour and environmental rules favour corporate elites as best for economy. Limited social services Individual success comes from competition and ambition | Free market capitalism is unfair, leads to inequality. Rules must benefit all, not just the wealthy State promotes social justice and social service programs to reduce inequality under capitalist economic system Strong government to advance fairness and equity and manage economy in interest of all citizens not just the wealthy. Wealthy and corporations pay more taxes than poorer individuals | A strong collectivist state can organize society equitably and sustainably White supremist capitalist hetero-patriarchy must be systematically dismantled—cannot be reformed Inequality is not natural; organize society for equity and justice. Wealth for few cannot be prioritized over inequality, oppression, exploitation and environmental disaster |
| Core Values: View on Human Nature | Humans are ruled by nature—will and other non-rational drives. Only elite (primarily) men are capable and dedicated to national or racial cause Life is an unending struggle, the masses are primarily suited to serve and obey | Humans by nature are morally flawed, greedy, materialistic and selfish Inequality is normal; elites are naturally suited to rule over the imperfect masses | individuals have innate qualities regardless of social position or socialization People are rational and self-reliant; can improve through education. Inequality exists because some are incapable and/or lack social/economic conditions to compete successfully | Humans are rational, co-operative, responsible, inherently good, and all can succeed if the social, economic, and political environment is supportive | Humans by nature are good and can work towards the common good. Historically humans generally lived in classless cooperative societies. Many of these societies were matriarchal. The introduction of private property normalized greed, selfishness and inequality. Socialization determines what we value |
| Origins of these Ideologies | Ultra-Nationalist: 19th century revolt against democracy and human rights. Takes root after collapse of democratic structures post-WW1 Largely a revolt of the lower middle classes displaced by industrialism, both anti-communist and anti-capitalist | Individualist/Elitist: emerges in 18th century as a rejection of liberal ideas, seeks to reassert traditional hierarchies and roles Elites reposition themselves to take advantage of evolving economic system of capitalism, privatization of land. Displacement of peasant farmers who become low wage and child labourers in developing urban centres | Individualist: originates as rejection of feudal society during the European Enlightenment period (17th century). Embraces individual rights, freedoms, and parliamentary system. Develops alongside white supremacist capitalism Basis of imperialism and colonialization and emergence of current global economic order controlled largely by European colonizers | Reformist/Collectivist: an off shoot of socialism’s dis-enchantment (19th century) with totalitarian nature of Russian communism. Seeks gradual reform within liberal participatory democratic models. Democratic socialists aim to reform capitalism with economic democracy, more worker control, and/or state structures to facilitate this. Popular during the first half of the 20th century in Scandinavian countries, settler states like Canada and the Global South. | Different strands of Collectivist movements against oppression: socialism (18th century) exposes exploitation of emerging working class under capitalism. White and African American women’s suffrage challenge patriarchy and white supremacy. Anti-colonial movements challenge oppressive structures of colonization and imperialism |
| Recent Manifestations | Displacement of white middle class resulting from neoliberal economic policies (1980s to present); blame placed on racialized immigrants and enemy ‘others’ Rise of authoritarian-style leaders both in the West and Global South—suppression of dissent, attempts to weaken or dismantle democratic institutions. Rise of white nationalism, Hindu nationalism, Christian evangelism; many view diversity as a threat to their racial, cultural, or religious survival | Anti-colonial movements of the 1960s and feminist, anti-racist, LGTBQ2S, disability activists seen as radicals and outsiders eroding traditional values Backlash in the 1980s/90s to demographic shifts from non-white immigration and state implementation of human rights and equity legislation. Discourses of reverse discrimination and political correctness gives rise to white nationalists, conversion therapy, men’s rights and INCEL movements | In the 1970s financial elites demand less government. This leads to: elimination of social democratic policies that alleviate the worst aspects of capitalism, deregulation of financial markets, off-shore tax havens, weakening of environmental and labour protection, massive cutbacks and/or elimination of public services (education, healthcare, welfare, pension, unemployment…), privatization of state enterprises (public utilities, transportation, roads…), massive tax cuts for the wealthy, and increased corporate welfare and subsidies for corporations | Aspects adopted by USA in the 1940s after the Great Depression—legalizations of unions, work rights, health and safety, minimum wage, pensions; limit on hours of work and number of days per week. Neoliberal tax cuts have led to more privatization of public services Advocates for a mixed economy of both private and public sectors. Strong publicly owned subsidized institutions viewed as essential public services: energy (Petro-Canada), health (medicare), education (free or subsidized tuition), transportation (public transit), culture (CBC), utilities (Hydro) | African American women activists and academics and allies present intersectional analysis and resistance to white supremist capitalist hetero-patriarchy. Draws attention to ongoing violence, discrimination, inequality in public and private institutions and state-facilitated genocide, environmental destruction, present-day corporate land and resource grabs Activism has led to development of human rights code, employment equity, and labour policies. Weakens during neoliberal/neoconservative governments |
| Perceptions of Social / Environmental Problems | Economic, social and political problems blamed on liberal intellectuals, scientists, feminists, racialized immigrants, and other enemies Police given limitless powers; patriotism trumps civil liberties. Fear of enemies can lead to disdain for human rights, incarceration of political opponents, assassinations and torture | No systemic/social issues, just individual problems caused by individual flaws and pathology Anti-union, anti-immigrant, anti-social services and anti-human rights. Does not support policies and legislation to bring about equity and protect human rights or environment Tacit and overt support for discriminatory social ideologies Social activist groups viewed as thugs and “domestic terrorists” Climate change seen as a hoax; environmental and species protection legislation must be dismantled—bad for business | Social problems are increasingly viewed as the fault of the individual who needs to be entrepreneurial to succeed. State’s purpose is to serve the interests of business elites, as wealth will trickle down to workers Assumes we live in post discriminatory age. Social justice, social welfare policies undermine the rules of the ‘free’ market Environmental destruction a cost of development Previous measures to address social problems largely dismantled | Systemic inequality a consequence of corporate capitalism. The state and societal institutions must play a major administrative role in advancing social justice by redistribution wealth, developing a strong welfare state, and addressing issues of discrimination against minoritized groups State resources used to promote citizen participation in social justice policies and programs to reduce inequality and revamp collectivist policies such as medicare, minimum wage, workers’ compensation, unemployment insurance, social welfare, subsidized housing, pensions, … | Inequality & systemic discrimination fostered by harmful ideologies and discourses of neocolonial white supremist capitalist hetero-patriarchy embedded in the settler states and policies and practices of social institutions Must connect all forms of oppression through intersectional analysis. State should dismantle oppressive structures or be dismantled itself. The natural world has intrinsic value and must return to the commons. The environment must be preserved and protected |
| Institutional Impacts | State institutions serve the leader’s interests. Corporate power is enhanced since business elites bankroll such movements. Rampant nepotism, cronyism, corruption, electoral fraud and manipulation to maintain power. Use of religion to manipulate public opinion Media control, censorship and misinformation rampant. Rise of hate groups and hate crimes bolstered by leaders who target minoritized groups as the source of problems. Women usually marginalized, though there are modern exceptions where women are the leaders of such movements—France | Militarization, nationalistic and xenophobic targeting of vulnerable groups. Culture of fear, and law and order discourse used by state institutions to justify increasing loss of freedoms, increasing surveillance of population, using military tactics on activist minoritized groups and state violence against Black people and other minoritized groups. Working poor rely on food banks and charity. Substandard housing, education, healthcare and other public services | Corporatization of society: citizens pay for corporate fraud and crimes (the financial collapse of 2008, and $3 trillion bailout of the private banks at the expense of taxpayers). Dismantling of worker protections: precarious (part-time, casualized, temporary) work, deskilling/standardization of work, surveillance of workers, weakening of trade unions. Superficial Institutional attempts to address inequality and discrimination | Centralized wage setting involving unions, business and government leads to more equity, living wage. Fair taxes on corporations lead to better infrastructure of social, medical, education and transit services. Students enjoy free or subsidized tuition for higher education. Subsidized housing for those who need it. Medicare for all. Better working conditions for all | Dismantling of discriminatory ideologies, predatory capitalism, disenfranchisement of Indigenous peoples and other minoritized groups. Ban on slave-like conditions to maximize profits for corporations |
| Major Flaws / Contradictions | Mythical/fictional view of past “as glorious—good old days”; more fantasy than reality Strong support for conspiracy theories Targeting of outsiders or those deemed enemies has led to violence and genocide | Disdain for most of the population. Relies on the people it exploits for support Tacit support for discriminatory ideologies Creates highly stratified and unequal societies | Dichotomy between rhetoric and reality Trickle-down theory is a fantasy. The self-adjusting free market is a myth; monopolies, predatory capitalism is creating vast inequality and environmental destruction. Public institutions forced to become more for-profit businesses rather than serving the public good | Dominant discourses deployed by neoliberal and neoconservative ideologies have diminished the popularity of this ideology | Revolutionary social action—Arab Spring, Black Lives Matter, Occupy Wall Street, Indigenous resistance movements—are gaining traction but the majority view these as radical interest-based movements Not all feminists, anti-racists, environmentalists and other activists critical of capitalism embrace intersectionality—may embrace social aspects of liberal or even conservative ideologies on certain issues (e.g. some anti-LGTBQ2S, give lip service to disability rights) |
“How Ideologies Differ Chart” by Chet Singh, Centennial College is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 International License.